Assumptions, research design and data collection strategies

Assumptions, investigate approach pattern and in cropation order strategiesChapter 1 IntroductionThe purpose of this grant is to offer a critical analysis of the underpinning boldnesss and investigate mark and data collection strategies and the practice of academic question. Two motion text file argon elect for the purpose of this analysis. The first paper is a denary vignette and the second paper is a qualitative theatre. They ar as follows-Shafer, W. E., Fukukawa, K. and Lee, G. M. (2007) time value and the perceive importance of ethics and genial responsibility The U.S. versus china, Journal of business enterprise Ethics, 70 (3), pp. 265-284.Tsoi, J. (2007) Stakeholders perceptions and forthcoming scenarios to improve merged societal responsibility in Hong Kong and Mainland China, Journal of Business Ethics, pp. 1-14.The main reason for selecting these two papers is that they two report upon the ara of corporate affectionate responsibility, which is the focus of my PhD. Within the orbital cavity of corporate accessible responsibility (CSR), in that respect has been consider adapted look into discussing the kinship among set and perception with the attitude/ behavior of businesses towards CSR. These make up be considered quantifiable and in that locationfrom take up been throwawayd quantitatively using surpasss real by composes such(prenominal) as Forsyth (1980), Singhapakdi et al.(1996), and Vitell and Patwardhan (2008). Interviews thrust been use to bring forrader the set that are deemed important by stakeholders, and were explored qualitatively by Fukukawa and Teramoto (2009), Siltaoja (2006), and Lhdesmki and Siltaoja (2009).The two papers selected both looked at cross-cultural determine and perceptions, however, they utilise different methods of investigating. This difference could provide a good to a faultshie for comparison, in terms of philosophical assumptions, look into design, and the met hod of data collection.The analyses entrust begin for each paper with an fundament of the research aims, followed by the epistemological and ontological coiffure, the research design, followed by analysis of its research methodology, the alternative research design and lastly, conclusions from this discussion will be provided.Chapter 2 Review of quantitative research paper2.1 Research ObjectivesThis study by Shafer, Fukukawa and Lee (2007) examined the value and the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility on managers from China and the U.S. The authors used scales instruments to obtain quantitative data in order to m an oppositewise(prenominal) generalizeences on whether the managers nationality and ad hominem values have effect on their honourable perception.The Ameri erect and Chinese managers are fictive to differ in their personal values and subsequently this should be speculateed from their replys to the Perceived Role of Ethics and neighborly Resp onsibility (PRESOR) scale. The authors provided the relevant background selective development and built up the logical thinking for their hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that managers from China would believe less strongly than Ameri jakes managers in the importance of ethic completelyy and socially responsible conduct to reach organisational success. The second hypothesis was that both Ameri disregard and Chinese managers personal values are believed to have significant impact on the responses to the scale. These hypotheses picturem to correlate strongly with the research preys which are to determine that there is variation in response due to cultural differences.2.2 Epistemological and Ontological AssumptionsIt is likely that the authors examine their research on moral ism which refers in particular to the principles of rules that batch use to decide what is right or wrong (Ferrell, Fraedrich and Ferrell, 200519). This paper nabms to direct that the principles of r ules of managers of different cultures are likely to differ and and so ethical decision-making would vary. The authors provided mannequins of other empirical research to support this nonion. The assumption that personal values can influence ethical decisions shows that the research is likely to infer an ontological assumption of realist, whereby reality is seen to have an exis cardinalce independent of the activities of the human observer (Blaikie, 200713). As the research strives to compare values and perceptions, these elements are thought to be measured and quantifiable seemingly leaning towards the empiricism position in which the mention idea is that knowledge tote ups from observing the world (Blaikie, 200719). The authors employed deductive research whereby the hypotheses formed are tested to determine if the invokements can be support (Sekaran, 200331), which is a typical research approach of empiricists. Taking possibly the spatial relation of positivists, these val ues are assumed measureable, and are indeed thought to form the social reality that these values affect the perception of corporate social responsibility amongst the managers from these two countries.2.3 Research DesignThe intention is to establish the differences in personal values, by using large quantities of data, which would be representative of the overall population of American and Chinese managers. This suggests that there are two assumptions, that values are measureable and that it is mathematical to generalise the population from the ingest. In order to generalise, a goodly large amount of data is required, thus a retrospect research instrument was employed.The PRESOR scale developed by Singhapakdi et al. (1995) was used. The reasons that the PRESOR scale was chosen over the cultural dimensions formed by Hofstede (2001) were argued examples of the latter in other research were shown to be inconsistent and inconclusive in its directional impact, thus making theoretic al predictions toil nigh. The use of PRESOR scale in other research was exemplified and seemed to have established the reliability of its measurement. The PRESOR scale was explained further in the introduction of the paper. Thirteen out of sixteen original items were selected and the authors justified this by stating that scarcely these thirteen items had significant federal agent loadings in the Singhapakdi, Scott and Franke (199925) study. These items were chemical grouped into two categories the shareowner and the Stakeholder views. The Stakeholder View reflects the importance of ethics and social responsibility to organisational survival and success, whilst the shareowner view indicates that organisational success depends on more than(prenominal) than just profitability and obligations to the stockholders (Axinn et al., 2004104)In the methodology section, the Schwartz value instrument and a demographic questionnaire were menti unmatchedd as existence used together with the PRESOR scale. There was little mention of the reasons the Schwartz scale was used and how it was applied. It was unless ulterior in the appendix that the items considered in the Schwartz scale was provided in details. A clearer explanation could have improved the clarity of the paper.The research design employed the use of two research instruments (PRESOR scale and Schwartz value instrument) as signifys for data collection. The pattern of practising managers from the two different countries was given the analogous fall out to complete, thus the responses could be compared on that reason. The results from the analyses were then compared against the hypotheses formed, affirming or non affirming the hypotheses. This process is typical of the deductive approach (Blaikie, 200770).2.4 Data CollectionThe sample consisted of 311 practising managers, enrolled part time in discriminating MBA programmes in the U.S. and China. The participation was self-imposed and the scales were completed as an in-class exercise. The authors acknowledged potential problems from this sample selection. The first is that, although the MBA programmes in these two countries appear to be comparable, the sample whitethorn have lost the effects of national differences and MBA programme differences. Secondly, the sample was not randomly selected as the authors had asked their students to complete the scales in-class. The authors did not provide further justification for these two problems and thus this is believed to have weakened the extraneous validity of this investigating (Bryman and Bell, 2007204). Aside from this gabfest from the authors, there was very little mention of the validity of the measurement which starts it difficult to make further discussion on this. The basis of their selectivity and the criteria in which these programmes were state to be comparable, were similarly not provided in details. The details of its comparability may have careed clarify and stren gthen the validity of the selection criteria, as rise as making the paper more understandable.Considering the objectives of the research, in which the authors seem to be looking at making generalisations on the affect of personal values, there is a need to collect large quantities of data. The survey method seems to be appropriate as surveys are easy to distribute to large bite of people and costs can be kept to a marginal (Bryman and Bell, 2007195). This relates to external validity, which is about generalisability of results beyond the focal study (Easterby-Smith et al., 200887). In this paper, external validity was not discussed however, it is likely that the results are meant to be applicable for the scope of China and the U.S. only.The authors state the limitation of which the participants can not be assumed as representative of the broader populations of managers in these two countries, due to the fact that the MBA programmes were selective in nature. The research took c onsideration of the possibility that the age and experience differences of their sample dexterity affect the results, and thus these factors were examined for significance. The scale was translated to Mandarin Chinese and later back-translated with resolution of discrepancies, to take account of the manner of speaking difference. These examples seem to reflect on the effort of the authors in ensuring that the results are not significantly affected by other variables. In order to test the dimensionality of the PRESOR scale, a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation and Kaiser normalisation was applied. This is typical of a quantitative study where factor analysis is usually applied as part of the research design.In terms of research replication, this research had provided considerable amount of information which would possibly render other researchers to perform similar research. The items from the two views (Stockholder and Stakeholder) of the PRESOR scale were provided in details. In addition, the authors also mentioned the calculation method used, such as the use of mean values and the Univariate Analysis of Covariance models (ANCOVA). The only exception would likely be the PRESOR scale itself, whereby the questions that were asked and the choice answers were not explicitly given, which mightiness mean that future researchers might find it difficult to replicate the research and might even have to approach the authors or Singhapakdi who developed the scale.2.5 Alternative modeThe authors mentioned that more in-depth examination using qualitative design of investigation such as interviews would perhaps be more revealing. It is agreed that qualitative measure would allow insights into the importance of ethics to managers, and the various ethical issues that managers prioritise. The researchers are more likely to obtain a richer data of the decision-making process of managers, at the homogeneous time they would be able to achieve the r esearch objectives. The researchers can make use of semi-structured type interview which will allow better withstand of what questions need to be asked, and to ensure that the objectives of the interview are achieved as well (Bryman and Bell, 2007474), if time and costs are constraints.There are also other alternatives methods to obtain qualitative data that would have fit this research, such as the use of focus groups. Focus group interviews allow researchers to observe the behaviour of the American and Chinese managers as they interact with each other. It would be possible to see the differences in reaction to ethical issues oftentimes more clearly, when these managers are given, for example, the same ethical dilemma, and they are required to rationalise the problem and come up with solutions. This method might be more useful than questionnaire surveys, oddly in that the values of the American and Chinese managers could be brought out with the way they respond and react to eth ical problems, the problem-rationalisation process, and the degree of attention compensable on a particular problem. Similar to the interview method, this would be considerably more pricey to conduct, and it might even be more costly than doing interviews, however, the researchers would gain not only in achieving the research objectives but they would also attain a better understanding of the effects of personal values in ethical decision-making.However, if the goal was only to establish that perception of CSR differs between diverse cultures, the research design would have fit the purpose. This is be intellect the data collection strategy used (questionnaire survey), allowed the authors to obtain considerably response for generalisation. A questionnaire survey would also have been more cost-efficient and less time consuming, especially for cross-cultural studies.Chapter 3 Review of Qualitative Research paper3.1 Research ObjectivesIn this second paper, this qualitative study aims to make apparent the perceptions and views of the future scenarios from stakeholders within the clothe industry in Hong Kong and Mainland China. The underlying intention was to assay consensus and common ground, on a local and regional level to help companies develop an appropriate CSR strategy, to improve the state of corporate social responsibility and in the long run, to achieve sustainability in the region.The main objective was express as by engaging with major stakeholders, to identify the local and regional supply chain stakeholders perceptions and expectations (Tsoi, 20071). Typical of a qualitative study, generalisation is a good deal not the objective of the study (Bryman and Bell, 2007410). This is apparent from this study as the author had mentioned that the sample may not be sufficient for generalisation for the replete(p) preen industry, however, it is relevant to garment businesses involved in export-orientated activities (Tsoi, 20071). Tsoi (2007) used an induc ive approach to identify the perceptions of stakeholders by conducting interviews.3.2 Epistemological and Ontological AssumptionsAlthough the author did not indicate the philosophical assumptions behind this study, the author implied that by identifying the stakeholders perception, the findings would help in building consensus, alter the implementation, and establishing future CSR framework. This suggests that the author has an ontological position of constructionism, which asserts that social phenomena and their subject matters are continually being accomplished by social actors, implying that there exists social interaction and that there is a constant state of revision of the social phenomena (Bryman and Bell, 200723). In this case study, the social reality of what is calamity in the garment industry, in terms of its corporate social responsibility, is a social reality that was formed by the stakeholders. It suggests that the social phenomena (condition of CSR) can bear with pitchs, and that it is dependent on the activities of the social actors. The views of the social actors are thought to be indicative of the important issues in corporate social responsibility, within the garment industry.This form of research is consistent with the research paradigm of the interpretivist position, as the basis of the research is that the study of the phenomena requires an understanding of the social world that social actors have constructed and which they reproduced through their continuing activities (Blaikie, 2007124). In this instance, the stakeholders are the social actors who will continually interpret and reinterpreting their social world which can be the garment industry. The social phenomenon that the author is investigating is the current state and the future of the corporate social responsibility in Hong Kong and Mainland China. The future conception of CSR in these two places is related to phenomenology, whereby, it concerns with the question of how indi viduals make sense of the world around them (Bryman and Bell, 200718). In this case, it can be viewed as the way stakeholders make sense of the state of corporate responsibility in the region.3.3 Research DesignThe author relied on a qualitative method, specifically, the face-to-face semi-structured interview, which indicates the leanings of the author in conducting a naturalistic inquiry in real-world rather than experimental or manipulated settings (Ritchie and Lewis, 20034). For qualitative studies, semi-structured and unstructured interviews are commonly used as they provide rich, detailed answers and taps into the interviewees destine of view (Bryman and Bell, 2007474). As the focal source of data was the stakeholders themselves in this study, this seems to infer that the research design is based on the interpretivist view that the social phenomena can only be understood and be investigated from the inside (Blaikie, 2007125). The author place major stakeholders possibly with stakeholder theory, stating the assumption that multinationals see stakeholder consultation and management as an important communication tool in identifying and interpreting the needs of owing(p) stakeholders and as such would enable the development of a common language for CSR and subsequently the development of proactive CSR strategies. This correlates with the stakeholder approach of Wheeler et al. (200319) who stated that value creation at the extravagantlyest level requires an ability to build value-based networks where all stakeholders see merit in their association with and support for a business. In this instance, it is likely that the stakeholders were deemed to be important in the future direction of CSR in the region, and this was the reason that stakeholders were chosen as source of data.The author mentioned that these interviews conducted in 2004 and 2005 may no longer be relevant, since there were major developments in 2008. This might have made the interviews slight ly outdated however there should not be many changes to the overall aims of the stakeholders and thus the outcomes of this research would remain valid. However, as an alternative, the author could have applied longitudinal design which represents a searching form of research design than is typically used to map change in business and management research (Bryman and Bell, 200760). The longitudinal design would not only serve the purpose of this study, but it would also allow insights into the factors that cause change to the perception. With this sample, it is possible to use cohort study, whereby the cohort is made up of people who share a certain characteristics (Bryman and Bell, 200761), since the stakeholders have a stake in the garment industry. However, longitudinal research may require a lot more preparation, could be time-consuming and thus it could be more costly.3.4 Data CollectionWith regards to the methodology, the interview questions that were used for this research was not provided. As this was a semi-structured interview, it would have been useful if the author had provided general information on how the questions were formed, and the structure of the interview questions as this would provide an indication of the depth of the interviews, and therefrom the validity of the research design.For the sample, 25 representatives from academia, the business organisations, the non-government organisations, trade association, and government officials were identified. The response rate was 84%, in which 21 out of a do of 25 representatives of these organisations agreed to be interviewed. It was mentioned that the reason for such a high response rate, was that the author had contacted the interviewees on a one-to-one basis. Furthermore, the interviewees were also guaranteed anonymity. The sample, thus, appears to be extensive and is representative of the various stakeholders that are vital in the garment industry.3.5 Alternative MethodThe intention was tha t the findings would help in building consensus, strengthening the implementation and establishing the future CSR framework (Tsoi, 20071). The author might have meant that having smooth all the different views from these stakeholders, the author would be able to determine the consensus of how CSR should be developed and how CSR should be like in the future. However, it is doubtful that a consensus could have been obtained using this method of analysis. The interviewees, although were representative of the garment industry, each one a vital stakeholder, there was no real interaction between these stakeholders, and thus, the consensus that is meant is only based on the researchers understanding from the interviewees responses. Stakeholders are thought to be able to reach a better compromise through discourse, with different sides argue for the validity of their point as well as ensuring that the interests of the group or association that they represent are taken account of (Bryman a nd Bell, 2007511). While it is understandable, that there is a strong possibility that it could be costly to get all the interviewees to sit together through a discourse, nevertheless there are alternatives which might be more useful for the purpose of this investigation, given that the objective is to reach a consensus amongst the stakeholders. With this reasoning, the research design could improve by first conveying the findings of the interviews to all of the stakeholders interviewed, and follow up with another interview to see if there were changes to their views.Alternatively, the author could use the method of focus group interviews. With this method, Merton et al. (1956) (in Bryman and Bell, 2007511) stated that the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning. Focus group interviews could provide a platform for the interviewees to interact and to establish a joint construction of what it means to strengthen CSR and also determine what fu ture scenarios should and could be like. With regards to selecting a suitable size for the focus group, it is recommended by Bryman and Bell (2007517) that the typical group size should be six to ten members, whilst Sekaran (2003220) recommends a size of eight to twelve members. The reason that the focus group interview method was recommended was that the interviewees would be encouraged to express their opinions argumentatively, which would then allow the researcher to gauge the degree of importance of certain issues and how much flexibleness the interviewees might have to reach a compromise with others. There are of course possible pitfalls using the focus group method, in that some interviewees might be prevailing over others, and thus the opinions of those less dominant might not be heard, but these effects can be reduced to a minimum level by having a good moderator (in Bryman and Bell, 2007511). The one-to-one interview method could still be more advantageous compared with th e focus group interview, as the time and monetary costs of conducting a one-to-one interview would probably be considerably less and thus be more manageable especially if there was only one researcher, as was with this case study.In this case study, it seemed that a quantitative design would actually be difficult to apply, and it would also be inappropriate for an investigation on the perception of CSR as a business concern. Taking the example of using a questionnaire survey with closed-ended questions, it is very likely that the respondents would answer that they are very concerned about CSR, as that might be perceived as the correct response, thus creating social desirability bias to the results. Furthermore, with a questionnaire survey, the researcher would not be able to pin-point all the various future scenarios for CSR in Hong Kong and Mainland China, even if it was possible, the list of future scenarios might be too long to be practically manageable. Another issue would be th at in making assumptions of the future scenarios that are deemed significant to the stakeholders, it would be problematic as the researcher might risk missing out relevant information. Therefore, it would be difficult, from these reasons, that a quantitative design would not be suitable for such a case study.Chapter 4 ConclusionsIn summary, the two papers reflect significant differences in their research approach. This was seen through the objectives of the research, the underlying assumptions of the research philosophy and the conceptualisation of research design and the data collection. There is certainly much to learn from these two research papers, both had given valuable information on the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, as well as offer guidance on the selection of research method and how to go about utilising these methods. The research designs, as shown in these papers, are dependent of the research objectives and the designs are also influenced by the epistemological and ontological assumptions made. Even though the philosophical positions of the researchers were not made explicit, however, the likely positions can be assumed. These papers have also shown that the advantages and the disadvantages of the different methods of investigation, and they need to be considered to ensure that the high hat method is chosen for the purpose of the research.In these two papers, the method of investigation is distinct, one was a qualitative study and the other was a quantitative study, however, this does not necessarily mean that a mixed method of investigation can not be used. In fact, (Bryman and Bell, 2007646) suggested that triangulation can be applied, in which the results of an investigation employing a method associated with one research strategy are cross-checked against the results of using a method associated with the other research strategy.